Untitled Document
RESOURCES
NARRATIVE
In 1903, the United States received authority to build a canal in Panama and to control the Panama Canal Zone “in perpetuity,” in exchange for annual payments to Panama. By the 1960s, Latin American resentment of US power was growing. In 1977, newly elected President Jimmy Carter, fulfilling a campaign promise, set out to negotiate a new agreement with Panama. He believed that a new treaty was needed to correct what he saw as injustices.
In spite of vocal opposition from Congress and the American public, Carter negotiated two new treaties: 1. The United States would retain the right to defend the canal forever. 2. The Canal Zone would be turned over to Panama in 1979, and a transfer of the operation of the canal would be complete by 1999. Panamanian voters approved these Carter-Torrijos Treaties in a special referendum.
The US Constitution empowers the President to make treaties with “the advice and consent” of the Senate. In the case of the Panama Canal Treaties, thirty-eight Senators—more than enough to prevent ratification —had expressed opposition to the new agreements. Public opinion was also against the Treaties.
The President sent a task force across the country to make over 1500 presentations about the Treaties’ benefits. In a binder on his desk, Carter’s team kept track of conversations, rumors, and questions from Senators regarding the Treaties, quickly following up on each entry to win converts. Throughout the long Senate debate, Carter personally tracked the progress of the Treaties, talking daily with Senators, answering questions and agreeing to various Senate modifications to save the Treaties.
After three months of Senate debate in the spring of 1978, the Senate approved new Treaties governing the Panama Canal with one vote to spare: sixty-eight for—thirty-two against. Through personal attention, patience, and his willingness to make adjustments in the agreement, Carter had built support for them.
In 1999, during the Bill Clinton administration, the gradual shift of authority for the canal was complete. Former President Jimmy Carter led the US delegation in the ceremony marking the handoff. Carter considers the Panama Treaties among the most important achievements of his Presidency.
QUESTIONS
- What two treaties did President Carter negotiate with Panama regarding the Panama Canal Zone?
- How did Carter work to increase public support for the Treaties? Why do you think this was important to Carter?
- How did Carter work for the “advice and consent” of the Senate?
- How would you assess Carter’s approach to public opinion as well as to the Senate?
ANSWERS
- The first Treaty gave the US the right to defend the canal forever. The second transferred control of the Canal from the US to Panama from 1979 to 1999.
- Carter sent a task force to make 1500 public appearances in support of the Treaty. He may have hoped that by convincing the people, he may better persuade the people’s representatives in the Senate.
- Carter kept a binder of conversations with Senators. This helped him and his team to keep track of conversations, questions, objections, and proposed modifications to the Treaty.
- Accept reasoned answers. Some students may admire his determination to negotiate a new treaty with Panama despite public opinion, while others may criticize him for this same action. Some may find his approach to “advice and consent” of the Senate to be a respectful and practical approach, as evidenced by the Senate’s approval of the Treaties. (Contrast this with the approach of President Wilson, whose refusal to heed the Senate’s advice on the Treaty of Versailles led to that Treaty’s failure to achieve ratification.) Others may say Carter deferred to the Senate too much.
EXTENSION
Have students read the 1977 Time Magazine feature about the Panama Canal Treaties. What were the most persuasive arguments on each side regarding the Treaties? After reading about the controversy, how would students assess Carter’s actions with respect to Panama and working for ratification of the Treaties?
